Literary
Criticism and Theory (Part1)
1.
Theories of Rasa, Dhwani and Alankara
Snippets
1. Rasa Theory
and Dhwani Theory are the most important poetic theories of ancient India.
Dhwani Theory is basically a semantic theory. Rasa siddhanta is an affective
theory. Though it is Bharata who is credited with having originated the Rasa
theory it was Abhinava Guptha who developed it into a systematic poetic
principle. Anandhavardhana was the chief exponent of Dhwani Theory, all the
same Abhinava Gupta had made significant contributions to it.
2. The term alankara {meaning ornament} in Sanskrit
stands for the principal of poetic beauty itself, in which sense of this
general meaning, this entire science of criticism is named
[Alankarashashtra]. Alankara in a restricted sense also means any trope or
figure of speech that adorns a literary composition. There is a detailed
treatment of such figures of speech from Bharata, the author of
natyashastra [2nd C, B. C to 2nd C. A. D] to
Mammata [4rth C. Kashmir] regarding their definition, classification and
numbers.
3.
Rasa
or “sentiment” is the centripetal force within a literary work, which not only
emotively binds the internal dramatic world but also serves as an aesthetic
conduit to the audience. In terms of aesthetics, rasa describes the emotional
response of the audience which is cultivated for the ultimate success of the
play. The rasika is an aesthetically and culturally knowledgeable observer who
is able to be appropriately stimulated by the dramatic cues and thereby
experiences the primary emotional “flavor” of the drama.
4. While rasa
refers to the culmination of the poetic process, dhvani or “suggestion” refers
to the process itself. It has three types according to Ānandavardhana who is
widely regarded as the originator of the theory of dhvani: vastu dhvani
(suggestion of plot or facts); alan̄kāra dhvani (literary and figurative
suggestion); and most importantly, rasadhvani (suggestion of sentiment). As
Ānandavardhana argues, the function of “suggestion” undergirds all linguistic
expression, but it is particularly crucial in kāvya as it is the mechanism by
which all other poetic devices and tropes operate. Thus, the evocation of
sentiment depends on a network of “suggestions” in the dramatic narrative which
steer the audience towards a particular emotional interaction.
5. Ānandavardhana’s
theory of dhvani revolutionizes Sanskrit poetics by offering one of the first
comprehensive paradigm explaining the nature and construction of poetic expression.
Abhinavagupta takes Ānandavardhana’s theory by not only affirming that
evocation of rasadhvani is the highest success a poetic text could achieve, but
also theorizing the rasika’s (spectator) vital role in the success of drama.
Thus, they represent an important “turn” in the tradition that firmly
entrenches the concepts of rasa and dhvani as the foundational elements of
kavya.
6. All modern
South Asian drama and poetry bear indirect or direct connection to the dramatic
tenets laid out in the Nāṭyaśāstra. Attributed to a figure named Bharata,
the Sanskrit text Nāṭyaśāstra, likely extant by 100 CE, is a comprehensive
manual on dramatic production, creation, acting, performance, and goals.
Although actual Sanskrit Drama as described by Bharata no longer can be found
in modern dramatic performance (with the exception of the close relationship
between Sanskrit Drama and Kuttiyāṭṭam), various rituals, the role of the
audience, and use the epic and purāṇic narratives and characters continue to be
a part of a pan-Indian performative milieu.
7.
Aandavardhana [9thC. Kashmir] made an epoch-making analysis of the
functions of language on the one hand and the content of poetry on the other in
his monumental work dhvanyaloka. He formulated the theory that dhvani or
suggestion is the soul of poetry and such an expression can apply to the
idioms, form, matter content and emotional context. Under this
Scheme the figure of Speech in a great poet is an inevitable incarnation in
which ideas embody themselves.
8. Alankara-
kaustubha: - [poetics by Kavikarnapura]
Alankara –kaustubha is a celebrated Sanskrit work on poetics by Kavikarnapura.
It is composed in 1o chapters [kirans] kavyalakshna, sabdartha, dhavani,
Gbnibhutavyangya, Rasa- bhava- tadbheda, Gunasabddankard, arthalankara, kiti,
and Dosha. Most of the illustrative verses is in praise of Krishna, and the subject
matter follows the Kavya- prakasa in treatment.
9. Alankara-Sara-Sangraha (10th Century)
Poetics by Udbhata
Alankara- Sara-Sangraha is a celebrated Sanskrit work on poetics by
Udbhata of 10thcentury. It is also called Kayvalankara-
Sara-Sangraha or kavyalankara-Sangraha. It defines 41 Alankaras in about 79
verses and illustrates them in about a hundred stanzas, taken from his own Kumarasambhava.
Divided into six
chapters, the work was commented upon by Pratiharenduraja about the middle of
the 10th century. The work, though closely follows Bhamaha in
the treatment of Alankaras, expresses certain independent views.
10. Alankara-Sarvasva (Poetics by Kuyyaka)
Alankara-Sarvasva, a celebrated Sanskrit work, composed about A. D.
1125 by including the trunk, branches and sub branches, formulates
that just as by increasing the vitality a man can enhance the efficiency of the
sense-organs, so by worshipping the supreme deity, Achyuta, a
person can please and satisfy all.
11. According to Abhinavagupta, the word dhvani can
stand for five different meanings.
1) The suggestive meaning (vyanjakartha)
2) The suggestive word (vyanjashabda)
3) The function of suggestion (vyanjanavyapara)
4) The suggested content (vyangya) and
5) Poetry as a whole (samudayakavya)
Expected Questions
1. The earliest work of Indian aesthetics
is ------
a. NatyaSastra
b. KavyaKautuka
c. VakroktiJivita
d.
AlankaraSastra
Ans:
A
Explanation: The Nātya Shastra (Nātyaśāstra नाट्य शास्त्र) of Bharata is the principal work of
dramatic theory, encompassing dance and music, in classical India. It is attributed to the muni (sage) Bharata and is believed to have been
written during the period between 200 B.C.E. and
200 C.E. The Natya Shastra is the outcome of several
centuries of theatrical practice by hereditary actors, who passed their
tradition orally from generation to generation. It is in the form of a loose dialog between Bharata and a number of munis who
approach him, asking about nāṭyaveda (lit. nāṭya=
drama, performance; veda= knowledge).
2.
Who
is the originator of Rasa theory
a. Bharata
b. Abhinavagupta
c. Bhatatauta
d.
Samkuka
Ans:
A
Explanation: Though it is
Bharata who is credited with having originated the Rasa theory it was Abhinava
Guptha who developed it into a systematic poetic principle.
3. In which work is the theory of
rasa, originally expounded?
a. KavyaKautuka
b. VakroktiJivita
c. AbhinavaBharati
d.
NatyaSastra
Ans: D
Explanation:
Question1.
4. Which among the
following is the maxim concerning rasa?
a. Vibhavanubhavavyabhichri samyogadras
nishpatti
b. Kavyasyatamadvani
c. Sadbaranikaran
d.
None of the above
Ans: A
Explanation:
The
Rasa Sutra
Tatra rasanev
tavadadavabhivyavyakhyym:/
Nahi rasadrate
kaschidartha: pravertate/
Tatra Vibhavanubhavavyabhichri
Samyogadras nishpati:/
5. According to Bharata
-------are the objective conditions producing an
emotion
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicharibhava
d.
None of the above
Ans:
A
Explanation: Vibhava (hetu,
karana, nimmita) means ‘cause’ of what happens or is happening in life. Bharata
has termed it as ‘Vibhava’ and has described its primary purpose as, creating
the awareness of the emotions that the creator (Poet/Author) intends to.
6. According to Bharata, Vibhavas
are of -----kinds
a. Two
b. Three
c. Four
d.
Six
Ans:
A
Explanation: The Vibhavas are
of two types one is ‘Aalambana Vibhava’ and the other is ‘Uddipana Vibhava’. In
broader sense, they are the internal and external causes of something.
‘Alambana vibhava’ is source of a particular emotion that determines its nature
and ‘Uddipana vibhava’ is the one, which enhances the emotion caused by a
stimulant.
7. According to Bharata
-------are the various temporary emotions
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicharibhava
d.
None of the above
Ans:
C
Explanation: Vyabhichari or
Sanchari Bhava act as transitory feelings and sentiments, which can have many
sources. These come to stay for a while, do their job and go. Thirty three such
Vyabhichari or Sanchari Bhavas are mentioned in the Natya Sastra.
8. According to Bharata
-------are the objective conditions that inspire an
emotion
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicaribhava
d.
UddipanaVibhava
Ans:
D
Explanation: ‘Uddipana
vibhava’ is the one, which enhances the emotion caused by a stimulant. It has
no direct bearing or connection with the cause or consequence and it is not a
part of the process but indirectly plays the role of enhancer of a particular
emotion borne out of a stimulant.
9. According to Bharata
-------are the characters with respect to whom an emotion arouses
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicaribhava
d.
AlambanaVibhava
Ans:
D
Explanation: The Vibhavas are
of two types one is ‘Aalambana Vibhava’ and the other is ‘Uddipana Vibhava’. In
broader sense, they are the internal and external causes of something.
‘Alambana vibhava’ is source of a particular emotion that determines its nature
and ‘Uddipana vibhava’ is the one, which enhances the emotion caused by a
stimulant.
10. --------are the
psycho-physical manifestation which a particular emotion makes upon characters
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicaribhava
d.
None of the above
Ans:
B
Explanation: ‘Anu’ is a
Sanskrit word and in this context, it means “in reaction to”! Here in this case
since it is the natural reaction of body to ‘Vibhava’ it is termed as
‘Anubhava’. Apparently, there is a very thin line of demarcation between the
two; yet they cannot be termed as the same because Vibhava is the cause and
Anubhava is its consequence. Vibhava is definitive whereas Anubhava is not
definitive.
11. The emotion of anger being
accompanied by biting of the teeth is an instance of ------
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicaribhava
d.
None of the above
Ans:
B
Explanation: As in Q.10.
12. A woman waiting for her
lover, experiencing emotions like jealousy, despair anxiety and over-fondness
is an instance for------
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicaribhava
d. AlambanaVibhava
Ans: C
Explanation: Vyabhichari or
Sanchari Bhava act as transitory feelings and sentiments, which can have many sources.
These come to stay for a while, do their job and go. Thirty three such
Vyabhichari or Sanchari Bhavas are mentioned in the Natya Sastra.
13. In “Sakumtalam”, Sakumtala is
--------to excite Sringara in Dushyanta
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicaribhava
d.
AlambanaVibhava
Ans:
D
Explanation: As in Question
9
14. In “Sakumtalam”, Dushyanta is
--------to excite Sringara in Sakuntala.
a. Vibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicaribhava
d.
AlambanaVibhava
Ans:
D
Explanation: As in Question
9
15. In “Sakumtalam”, the blooming
flowers ,the fragrant air and the furling River Malini are instances of
---------
a. UddipanaVibhava
b. Anubhava
c. Vyabhicaribhava
d.
AlambanaVibhava
Ans:
A
Explanation:
The means by which an
emotion is activated are termed Vibhava. There are two kinds of Vibhava – the
Alambhana Vibhava – the person or the object in respect of whom the emotion is
experienced and whose appearance is directly responsible for the bringing forth
of the emotion; and the Uddipana Vibhava – the situation in the environment in
which that person or object is placed and which is helpful in intensifying the
emotional experience.
16. Who
is the author of the work “Abhinava Bharti”
a. Abhinava Gupta
b. AbhinavaBharati
c. BhattaTauta
d.
Lollota
Ans:
A
Explanation: Abhinavabharati is a commentary on ancient Indian author Bharata
Muni's work of dramatic theory,
the Natyasastra. It is the oldest commentary available on the treatise.
The Abhinavabharati was written by Abhinavagupta (ca. 950-1020), the great Kashmiri Saivite spiritual
leader and a yogi.
17. Which
among the following is not the primary emotion?
a. The amorous
b. The pathetic
c. The heroic
d.
The jealous
Ans:
D
Explanation: Primary
Emotions are: Anger, Sadness, Fear, Joy, Interest, Surprise,Disgust and Shame.
18. Which among the following is
the primary emotion?
a. The fearful
b. The jealous
c. The anxious
d.
The despair
Ans:
A
Explanation: Primary
Emotions are: Anger, Sadness, Fear, Joy, Interest, Surprise,Disgust and Shame.
19. The Sanskrit term for ‘the
amorous’
a. Srinkara
b. Hasa
c. Soka
d.
Vira
Ans:
A
Explanation: According to Bharata’s Natyashastra there are
eight fundamental feelings or mental states referred to as Sthayibhavas which
can be experienced by human beings. These are: Delight (Rati), Laughter
(Hasya), sorrow (Soka), Anger (Krodha), Heroism (Utsaha), Fear (Bhaya), Disgust
(Jugupsa), and wonder (Vismaya). Corresponding to these mental states are eight
Rasas: the Erotic (srngara), the Comic (Hasya) the Pathetic (Karuna), the
Furious (Raudra), the Heroic (Vira), the Terrible (Bhayanaka), the Odious
(Bibhatasa), and the Marvelous (Adbhuta). A ninth Rasa, the Peaceful (Shanta)
was later added.
20. The Sanskrit term for the ‘the
ludicrous’
a. Srinkara
b. Hasa
c. Soka
d. Vira
Ans: B
Explanation: As in Question 19.
21. The dominant emotions are
called-------
a. Anubhavas
b. Vibhavas
c. Stayibhavas
d.
Sancharibhavas
Ans: C
Explanation: The Sthayibhava (“permanent mood”) is a
major emotion which is developed by a number of minor feelings referred to as
Vyabicaribhavas.
22. Whose name is associated with
the concept of Bhavakatva and
Bhojakatva?
a. Abhinavagupta
b. Bharata
c. Sankuka
d. BhattaTauta
Ans: C
Explanation: Samkuka explains the enlightenment of
aesthetic emotion through Bhavakatva and Bhojakatva. A proper aesthetic creation generates in us a
new spiritual enlightenment which gives us enjoyment.
Bhavakatva is
the power of universalization (sadharanikaran) by virtue of which vibhavas,
sthayi bhavas, etc. lose their individuality in people who are endowed with
imaginations.
Bhojakatva is
the quality that is responsible for the enjoyment of this generalized sthayi
bhava by the spectator.
23. Who is the author of
“KavyaKautuka”
a. BhattaTauta
b. Abhinavagupta
c. Bharata
d. Sankuka
Ans: A
Explanation: In Kavya Kautuka, the work of Bhatta
Tauta on Rasa, says that a dramatic presentation is not a mere physical
occurrence. In witnessing a play, we
forget the actual perceptual experience of the individuals on the stage. The protagonist stands midway between the
pure ‘actuality’ and the pure ‘ideality.’
This, together with all the scenic association and music produces an
experience which vibrates with exhilaration.
24. Who is the author of
“VakroktiJivita”
a. BhattaTauta
b. Abhinavagupta
c. Bharata
d. Kuntaka
Ans: D
Explanation: The concept of Vakrokti has been running
like a thread in the Indian Poetics from its very early times (6th-7th
centuries); but was vaguely discussed as one of the secondary aspects by all
the Schools of Kavya Shastra. It was however developed into a full-fledged
theory of Poetics by the great Scholar Rajanaka Kuntaka of Kashmir who is said
to have lived during the period between the middle of the tenth century and the
middle of the eleventh century.
2. Aristotle- Poetics
Snippets
Aristotle’s views on poetry
1. Art of poetry
demands a man of genius, a man who can find himself in a state of transport.
2. A good poet
must be able to enter into the frame of mind of his characters; a good critic
must be able to sympathize with the poet.
The Principles of aesthetics according to Aristotle
1. A work of art
is a thing of beauty; it gives pleasure. It has order, proportion and organic
unity.
2. Tragedy
affords pleasure. Aristotle based his views on the kind of literature that existed
then namely, the Greek literature.
3. In his days
the epic, lyrical poetry, tragedy and comedy were the existing forms and
Aristotle confines himself to these only.
4. Aristotle
said that it is not writing in verse that makes a poet. It is ‘imitation’-
mimesis- that makes all the difference. We might call it “representation”.
Imitation is the objective representation of life, or the imaginative
representation of life.
Mimesis
Mimesis for
Aristotle is the essence of fine art. He narrows his inquiry to the tragedy,
comedy and the epic. For Arts, the medium is language, rhythm or melody. In the
case of painting the media are colour and form. Based on his analysis we could
divide it into three:
1. The subject,
or the object of imitation
2. The medium
3. The manner of
treatment
The subject is
men in action- superior men or inferior men. With men depicted larger than life
we get tragedy and with men lower than life we get comedy. In reality Aristotle
is not concerned with moral considerations. The main thing for him is the
character of the hero- not his morality.
Then comes the
question of treatment- tragic or comic. In tragedy, says Aristotle, “the plot
is the first thing.” If the treatment is serious, the characters are idealized
and we get a tragedy. If the treatment is light, the defects or idiosyncrasies
of the characters are exaggerated and we get a comedy.
Aristotle
discusses the three elements of Tragedy- Plot, Character and Thought. Aristotle
has concentrated on Tragedy because according to him, tragedy functions better
as an art- it is the grand type of all arts. So his theory of tragedy embraces
the theory of fine art.
Art is
imitation- mimesis. It must give pleasure; it must be convincing; it must be an
idealized treatment of the subject and its appeal is to the emotion.
Definition of Tragedy and Catharsis
Tragedy is an
imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude; in
language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds
being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action not of
narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these
effects.
So the
essentials of tragedy are:
1. Imitation
2. Action
3. Poetry,
appropriately used
4. Pity and fear
resulting in catharsis.
When a tragedy
evokes pity, it calls for some nobility in the character of the hero. The hero
must be a man of noble character, just and good. He must be almost an ideal
person. He must have some basic weakness of character (in Greek, hamartia) some
error; and his adversity or even death must be due to this weakness.
Tragedy thus
demands:
1. Reversal of
fortune (downfall or death of the hero)
2. The hero who
is great with some weakness.
3. The moment or
the situation which describes the reversal of fortune.
The meaning of
the word catharsis is ambiguous. It may be either purgation or purification. It
is a pathological question wherein the tragedy affects the emotional organism
of the spectators. It means the purging away of emotion or purification of them
by purging away the dross, providing an outlet for emotions, which are parts of
man’s nature. Aristotle lays it down that tragedy at all times makes its appeal
through emotions of pity and fear and that process is catharsis.
Plot as envisaged by Aristotle
A plot must have
1. An action
that is complete.(Not episodes, nor a sub plot)
2. Incidents
must be probable.
3. It must have
unity. (It must not have sub-plots).
Character
1. The characters in a
tragedy must be good, revealing a certain moral purpose.
2. They should be
appropriate. That is a male character should be manly and a female character
must have feminine charm.
3. They must be like
reality in action and thought.
4. They must be consistent
in their behaviour. They must not strain our belief too much. Oedipus of
Sophocles has a certain amount of improbability which is a defect.
Theme
The theme of a tragedy must
be grand or noble or important. It should be impressive enough to catch the
imagination of that reader and the audience.
Expected Questions
1. Aristotle was the most distinguished
disciple of ------
a. Socrates
b. Aristotle
c. Aristophanes
d. Plato
Ans: D
Explanation: Plato was a philosopher in Classical
Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of
higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal
figure in the development of philosophy, especially the Western tradition.
2. Aristotle’s ideas of poetry
are expressed in--------
a. Poetics
b. Rhetoric
c. Republic
d. Dialogues
Ans: A
Explanation: Aristotle's Poetics is the earliest
surviving work of dramatic theory and first extant philosophical treatise to
focus on literary theory in the West.
3. How many chapters does
“poetics” contain
a. Twenty two
b. Twenty three
c. Twenty six
d. Twenty six
Ans: D
Explanation: As in question 3.
4.
The first four chapters and the twenty fifth chapter of “poetics” is
devoted
to------
a.
Poetry
b.
Comedy, epic and tragedy in a general way
c.
Exclusively to tragedy
d. Poetic diction
Ans:
A
Explanation: For Aristotle, poetry is a
work of art and a thing of beauty; it gives pleasure. It has an order,
proportion and organic unity.
5. The last chapter of “poetics’ is devoted
to -----
a. Poetry
b. A Comparison of epic poetry
and tragedy
c. Exclusively to tragedy
d.
Poetic diction
Ans:
B
Explanation: Aristotle is of
the view that the epic, has the highest point of development beyond which there
is no progress- the epic of the age of Homer: the tragic drama of the Greeks.
6. Aristotle calls poet an
-------
a. Actor
b. Imitator
c. Interpreter
d.
Evaluator
Ans:
B
Explanation: Aristotle said
that it is not writing in verse that makes a poet. It is imitation- mimesis-
that makes all the difference. It is the objective representation of life, or
the imaginative representation of life.
7. In which of the following
ways, according to Aristotle, does the poet imitate things?
a. As they were or are
b. As they are said or thought to
be
c. As they ought be
d.
All the above
Ans:
D
Explanation: As in question 7
8. Imitation, according to Plato,
is -------
a. An inborn natural instinct
b. Achieved with much labour
c. Ascribed
d.
None of the above
Ans: A
Explanation: According to Plato, the poet is not
simply one who makes something beautiful. He imitates or represents life.
9. Aristotle considers------as
the end of poetry
a. Pleasure
b. Satire
c. Comedy
d. Laughter
Ans: A
Explanation: Based on Aristotle, art is imitation-
mimesis. It must give pleasure; it must be convincing; it must be an idealized
treatment of the subject and its appeal is to the emotion.
10. According to Aristotle,
poetry springs from the instincts of------
a. Imitation
b. Rhythm and harmony
c. Both ‘a’ & ‘b’
d. None of the
above
Ans: C
Explanation: Aristotle said that it is not writing in
verse that makes a poet. It is ‘imitation’- mimesis- that makes all the
difference. Mimesis for Aristotle is the essence of fine art. For Arts the
medium is language, rhythm or melody which creates harmony.
11.
In
tragedy, the emotions of pity and fear are aroused with a view to -------
a. Hamartia
b. Anagnorisis
c. Catharsis
d. Peripetia
Ans: C
Explanation:
Tragedy
effects the purgation of emotions through pity and fear aroused in the play. In
a way it cleanses the spectator’s emotions.
12. The term used by Aristotle to
mean tragic flaw is ----
a. Hamartia
b. Anagnorisis
c. Catharsis
d. Peripetia
Ans: A
Explanation:
According
to Aristotle, the hero must be a man of noble character, just and good. He must
have some basic weakness of character (in Greek, hamartia) some error; and his
adversity or even death must be due to this weakness.
13. The term used by Aristotle to
mean ‘recognition’
a. Hamartia
b. Anagnorisis
c. Catharsis
d. Peripetia
Ans: B
Explanation:
Anagnorisis
is a moment in a play or other work when a character makes a critical
discovery. Anagnorisis originally meant recognition in its Greek context, not
only of a person but also of what that person stood for.
14. The term used by Aristotle to
mean “reversal of situations” in a tragedy
a. Hamartia
b. Anagnorisis
c. Catharsis
d. Peripeteia
Ans: D
Explanation:
Peripeteia,
(Greek: “reversal”) the turning point in a drama after which the plot moves
steadily to its denouement. It is discussed by Aristotle in the Poetics as the
shift of the tragic protagonist’s fortune from good to bad, which is essential
to the plot of a tragedy. It is often an ironic twist, as in Sophocles’ Oedipus
Rex when a messenger brings Oedipus news about his parents that he thinks will
cheer him, but the news instead slowly brings about the awful recognition that
leads to Oedipus’s catastrophe.
15. Aristotle classified plot
into simple and complex plot on the basis of ------
a. Hamartia & catharsis
b. Anagnoris&peripetia
c. Sublimity & decorum
d. All the above.
Ans: B
Explanation:
As
in questions 13 & 14.
16. Who coined the phrase ‘tragic
flaw’ for hamartia?
a. T.s. Eliot
b. Washington Alston
c. A. C. Ward
d. Bernard Shaw.
Ans: C
Explanation:
He
was the first writer to coin the phrase ‘tragic flaw’ for hamartia.
17. The tragic error of KING LEAR
is -----
a. Procrastination
b. Uncontrollable anger
c. Suspicious jealousy
d. Over-vaulting
ambition
Ans: B
Explanation:
That
was the tragic flaw that caused his downfall.
3.
Longinus on the Sublime
Longinus who lived in
the 3rd century was the first romantic critic. His treatise ‘On the
Sublime’ is a very valuable work on literary criticism.
On
the Sublime
To instruct, to delight and to persuade had been the aim of poets,
writers and orators. Longinus was not satisfied with it. He concluded that the
epics of Homer, the lyrics of Sappho and Pindar, the tragedies of Aeschylus and
Sophocles and the orations of Demosthenes had all these qualities but they were
conspicuous for their sublimity. It is a certain loftiness and excellence in
language. It does not merely persuade, it carries us away almost irresistibly.
It expresses itself in the general structure of the work. Sometimes it may
express itself in a single phrase, like a flash of lightning. It is only
through sublimity that the greatest poets and prose writers have derived
eminence and gained immortality.
According to Longinus sublimity or loftiness in literature implies
ecstasy- transport-lifting out of oneself. The sublime effect of literature is
attained by revelation or illumination, and not by persuasion. Its appeal is
not through the reason but through the imagination.
Principal Sources of Sublime
There are five principal sources of the sublime:
1. Grandeur of thought.
2. Strong and inspired passion and the vigorous treatment of it.
3. The use of figures- a. figure of thought, b. figures of language or
expression.
4. Noble diction including a proper choice and arrangement of words and
handling of metaphor and other ornaments of diction.
5. Dignified, elevated and elaborate composition.
The first two of these sources are inborn gifts of a genius; the others
can be acquired by art. Longinus recognizes that “thought and language in
literature are for the most part interfolded each in the other.” Among the
sources of sublimity Longinus puts first grandeur of thought and vigorous,
spirited treatment of passions.
Longinus distinguishes between the true sublime and the false sublime.
The false sublime is characterized by bombastic language and puerile, tawdry,
affected and frigid expressions. The false sublime results when there is a
cheap display of passion, when it is not justified by occasion and so is wearisome.
The true sublime consists in a certain distinction and elevation of expression.
It pleases all and pleases always.
Expected Questions
1. Who is called “the first romantic critic”?
a. Horace
b. Dante
c. Sir Philip Sydney
d. Longinus
Ans: D
Explanation: Longinus who lived in the third century was
the first romantic critic. He is perhaps more of a romantic critic than the
critics of the age of romanticism.
2. “The sublime consists in a certain loftiness and cosummateness of
language, and it is by this and this only that the greatest poets and prose
writers have won pre-eminence and lasting fame.” Who expressed this opinion?
a. Longinus
b. Plato
c. Coleridge
d. Pater
Ans: Longinus
Explanation: The sublime is not purely a matter of the spirit. Thought and passion
are the very life blood of the sublime but at the same time, the technique of
expression is also essential for the poet. Beautiful thoughts and passion,
beautifully expressed, achieve the true significance of the sublime.
3. He was a classicist in taste, a romantic in temper and an idealist at
heart.” Who was he?
a. Plato
b. Aristotle
c. Longinus
d. Sidney
Ans: C
Explanation: As in question 1.
4. Painters of the sublime often viewed nature as
a. The source of metaphysical evil that must be destroyed.
b. A resource for humans to exploit.
c. A well- ordered system governed by mathematics
d. An awesome power that is overwhelming
Ans: D
Explanation: The sublime effect of literature is attained
not by arguments but by revelation or illumination. It appeals not through
reason but through what we should call imagination.
5. Who has written the essay, “On the Beautiful”?
a. Longinus
b. Plotinus
c. Plato
d. Horace.
Ans: B
Explanation: Plotinus was the founder of the new
Platonism. He believed that the body becomes beautiful by participating in the
reason that flows from the divine.
6. What did Longinus add to Plato’s theory of imitation?
a. Imagination and insight
b. Emotion and thought
c. Instruct and persuade
d. All the above
Ans: A
Explanation: According to Longinus, nature “ poured into
our souls a deathless longing for all that is great and diviner than
ourselves.”
4. Sydney- An Apology for Poetry
Snippets
1. Philip Sidney in his "Apology for Poetry" reacts
against the attacks made on poetry by the puritan, Stephen Gosson. To, Sidney,
poetry is an art of imitation for specific purpose, it is imitated to teach and
delight. According to him, poetry is simply a superior means of communication
and its value depends on what is communicated.
2. Stephen Gossen makes charges on poetry which
Sidney answers.
The charges are:
1. Poetry is the waste of time.
2. Poetry is mother of lies.
3. It is nurse of abuse.
4. Plato had rightly banished the poets
from his ideal world.
3. Poetry is
the source of knowledge and a civilizing force, for Sidney. Gossoon attacks on
poetry saying that it corrupts the people and it is a waste of time, but Sidney
says that no learning is so good as that which teaches and moves to virtue and
that nothing can both teach and amuse so much as poetry does. In ancient
societies, poetry was the main source of education. He remembers ancient Greek
society that respected poets. The poets are always to be looked up. So, poetry
is not a waste of time.
4. To the
second charge, Sidney answers that poet does not lie because he never affirms
that his fiction is true and can never lie. The poetic truths are ideal and
universal. Therefore, poetry cannot be a mother of lies.
5. Sidney
rejects that poetry is the source of abuses. To him, it is people who abuses
poetry, not vice- versa. Abuses are more
nursed by philosophy and history than by poetry, by describing battles,
bloodshed, violence etc. On the contrary, poetry helps to maintain morality and
peace by avoiding such violence and bloodsheds. Moreover, it brings light to
knowledge.
6. Sidney
views that Plato in his Republic wanted to banish the abuse of poetry not the
poets. He himself was not free from poeticality, which we can find in his
dialogues. Plato never says that all poets should be banished. He called for
banishing only those poets who are inferior and unable to instruct the
children.
7. For
Sidney, art is the imitation of nature but it is not slavish imitation as Plato
views. Rather it is creative imitation. Nature is dull, incomplete and ugly. It
is artists who turn dull nature in to golden color. He employs his creative
faculty, imagination and style of presentation to decorate the raw materials of
nature. For Sidney, art is a speaking picture having spatiotemporal dimension.
For Aristotle human action is more important but for Sidney nature is
important.
8. Artists
are to create arts considering the level of readers. The only purpose of art is
to teach and delight like the whole tendency of Renaissance. Sidney favors
poetic justice that is possible in poet's world where good are rewarded and
wicked people are punished.
9. Plato's
philosophy on ' virtue' is worthless at the battlefield but poet teaches men
how to behave under all circumstances. Moral philosophy teaches virtues through
abstract examples and history teaches virtues through concrete examples but
both are defective. Poetry teaches virtue by example as well as by percept
(blend of abstract + concrete). The poet creates his own world where he gives
only the inspiring things and thus poetry holds its superior position to that
of philosophy and history.
10. In the
poet's golden world, heroes are ideally presented and evils are corrupt.
Didactic effect of a poem depends up on the poet's power to move. It depends up
on the affective quality of poetry. Among the different forms of poetry like
lyric, elegy, satire, comedy etc. epic is the best form as it portrays heroic
deeds and inspires heroic deeds and inspires people to become courageous and patriotic.
In this
way, Sidney defines all the charges against poetry and stands for the sake of
universal and timeless quality of poetry making us know why the poets are
universal genius.
Expected Questions
1. Who wrote ‘An Apology for Poetry’(1580)?
a. Roger Ascham
b. Ben Jonson
c. Sir Philip Sidney
d. Edmund Spenser
Ans: C
Explanation: Sidney’s ‘An Apology for Poetry’ (1580) was
occasioned by the publication of Stephen Gosson’s treatise ‘The School of
Abuse’ (1579), which was a ruthless attack on poetry.
2. Sir Philip Sydney’s ‘An Apology for Poetry’ was occasioned by the
publication of :
a. Stephen Gosson’s treatise ‘The School of Abuse’ (1579)
b. Roger Ascham’s ‘The Schoolmaster’ (1568)
c. Wilson’s ‘The Art of Rhetoric’
d. Webb’s ‘The Discourse of English Poetry’
Ans: A
Explanation: In his work Sydney emphasizes that 1) Poetry
should be didactic 2) It should represent not the real world but a better and
ideal world 3) Poetry should move and persuade the reader to imitate that ideal
world 4) Poetry should teach as well as delight 5) The expression should be
passionate
3. An Elizabethan puritan critic denounced the poets as ‘the fathers of
lies’, ‘Schools of Abuse’ and ‘Caterpillars of Commonwealth’. Mark him out from
the following critics.
a. William Tyndale
b. Roger Ascham
c. Stephen Gosson
d. Henry Howard
Ans: C
Explanation: Stephen Gosson’s charges are:
1. Poetry is a waste of time.
2. Poetry is mother of lies.
3. It is nurse of abuse.
4. Plato had rightly banished the poets
from his ideal world.
4. What does Sydney say about the
observance of three dramatic unities in drama?
a. They must be observed.
b. It is not necessary to observe them
c. He favours the observance of the
unity of action only.
d. Their observance depends upon the
nature of the theme of the play.
Ans: A
Explanation: Sir Philip stood for the observance of three
dramatic unities in drama.
5. Which Italian poet greatly influenced
Sydney’s Sonnets?
a. Francesco Petrarch
b. Dante
c. Boccaccio
d. Giacomo da lentini
Ans: A
Explanation: Francesco Petrarca commonly
anglicized as Petrarch ,was an Italian scholar and poet in Renaissance Italy,
who was one of the earliest humanists. His rediscovery of Cicero's letters is
often credited with initiating the 14th-century Renaissance. Petrarch is often
considered the founder of Humanism.
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