Feminist Criticism- Notes

 1. New Feminism

New Feminism is a modern approach that addresses the shortcomings of earlier feminist waves. It emphasises intersectionality, inclusivity, and a global perspective, recognising the diverse experiences of women across different backgrounds.

The key concepts include

1. Intersectionality: This concept, introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw, highlights how various social identities (such as race, gender, and class) intersect, creating unique modes of discrimination and privilege.

2. Inclusivity: New Feminism strives to be diverse and inclusive, welcoming voices from all backgrounds, including those of marginalised communities.

3. Global Perspective: Unlike earlier waves, New Feminism acknowledges and incorporates feminist struggles worldwide, recognising the varied cultural contexts.

Important Figures of the movement

Kimberlé Crenshaw: Introduced the concept of intersectionality, foundational to New Feminism.

Bell Hooks: Emphasizes the importance of considering race and class within feminist discourse.

Angela Davis: Advocates for a broader, more inclusive approach to feminism, addressing intersections of race, class, and gender.

Examples

#MeToo Movement: This global movement against sexual harassment and assault underscores New Feminism’s focus on real-world issues affecting diverse women.

Black Lives Matter (BLM): BLM exemplifies intersectionality by highlighting how racial injustice and gender oppression are interconnected.

2. Post-Feminism

Post-feminism represents a complex and sometimes controversial framework. It does not signify the end of feminism but rather a shift in how feminist ideas are perceived and practised in a post-modern context.

Key Concepts include:

1. Empowerment through Choice: Post-feminism emphasises individual empowerment and the freedom to make personal choices, critiquing earlier feminist approaches as overly prescriptive.

2. Critique of Victimhood: Shifts from viewing women primarily as victims of patriarchy to recognising their agency and capacity for self-determination.

3. Media and Consumer Culture: Deeply intertwined with media representations and consumer culture, where feminist ideals are often co-opted and commodified.

Important Figures

Angela McRobbie: Critiques how media and consumer culture shape post-feminist identities and discourses.

Rosalind Gill: Analyses post-feminist media culture, exploring how feminist ideas are reconfigured in popular culture.

Sarah Banet-Weiser: Examines the commercialisation of feminist ideals and how empowerment is marketed to women.

Examples

"Girl Power": Popularized by the Spice Girls in the 1990s, this slogan encapsulates Post-Feminism’s focus on individual strength and empowerment despite criticisms of superficiality.

Fashion and Beauty Industries: Campaigns like Dove’s "Real Beauty" promote empowerment through consumption, illustrating Post-Feminism’s engagement with consumer culture.

3. Indian Feminism

Indian feminism is a rich and multifaceted movement that reflects the country's diverse social, cultural, and political landscape. It addresses unique challenges and issues women in India have faced since colonial times. 

Historical Context

Indian feminism has evolved through various stages, influenced by colonial history, independence movements, and contemporary social changes. It seeks to address gender inequalities deeply rooted in Indian society while recognising the intersections of caste, religion, and class.

The Key Concepts include:

1. Intersectionality: Indian feminism emphasises the importance of understanding gender oppression through caste, class, and religion lenses.

2. Decolonization: The movement aims to decolonise feminist thought and practice, challenging Western-centric feminist frameworks.

3. Grassroots Activism: Indian feminism has a strong tradition of grassroots activism, with movements often emerging from rural and marginalised communities.

Important Figures

Savitribai Phule: A pioneer in women's education and social reform, Phule established the first school for girls in India and worked tirelessly against caste-based discrimination.

Tarabai Shinde: An early feminist writer, Shinde is known for her work "Stri Purush Tulana" (A Comparison Between Women and Men), critiquing gender and caste oppression.

Kamala Das: A prominent poet and writer, Das explored themes of female sexuality and identity, challenging societal norms and expectations.

4. Contemporary Indian Feminism

Contemporary Indian feminism addresses a broad range of issues, from gender-based violence and sexual harassment to representation in politics and media. It incorporates traditional and modern elements, reflecting India's dynamic social fabric.

Key Concepts include:

1. Empowerment through Education: Education is crucial for women's empowerment and societal change.

2. Legal Reforms: Advocacy for legal reforms to protect women's rights, including laws against domestic violence, sexual harassment, and dowry.

3. Media Representation: Contemporary feminists work towards better representation of women in media and challenge stereotypical portrayals.

Important Figures

Arundhati Roy: An author and activist, Roy's work highlights the intersections of gender, caste, and environmental issues.

Vandana Shiva: An eco-feminist and environmental activist, Shiva focuses on the link between gender and environmental justice.

Flavia Agnes: A lawyer and women's rights activist, Agnes has advocated for legal reforms to protect women's rights, particularly in domestic violence and family law cases.

Examples

#MeToo Movement in India: The global #MeToo movement had a significant impact in India, with many women coming forward to share their experiences of sexual harassment and assault.

Gulabi Gang: A vigilante group of women in Uttar Pradesh fighting against domestic violence, corruption, and social injustice, exemplifying grassroots activism.

4. Écriture Féminine

Écriture Féminine (feminine writing) is a theory that emphasises the unique ways women express themselves through writing, challenging traditional, patriarchal structures of language and literature.

Key Concepts include:

1. Language and Identity: Écriture Féminine posits that women's writing inherently differs from men's, reflecting their unique experiences and identities.

2. Subversion of Patriarchy: It seeks to subvert patriarchal norms in literature by creating a new, female-centric mode of expression.

3. Fluidity and Openness: The theory celebrates fluidity, openness, and the body, often characterised by a poetic and nonlinear style.

Important Figures

Hélène Cixous: A pioneer of Écriture Féminine, Cixous's essay "The Laugh of the Medusa" is foundational. It advocates for women to reclaim their voices and bodies through writing.

Luce Irigaray: A philosopher and linguist, Irigaray's work explores the relationship between language, gender, and the body, emphasising the need for a distinct female language.

Julia Kristeva: Although more broadly a psychoanalytic theorist, Kristeva's ideas on semiotics and the maternal body contribute to understanding Écriture Féminine.

Examples

Hélène Cixous's "The Laugh of the Medusa" is a seminal essay that calls on women to write about their bodies and experiences, breaking free from patriarchal constraints.

Marguerite Duras's "The Lover": This novel exemplifies Écriture Féminine through its lyrical, fragmented narrative and focus on female desire.

5. Gynocriticism

Gynocriticism is a feminist literary criticism approach that focuses on women writers and their literary traditions, aiming to establish a female literary canon.

Key Concepts include:

1. Recovery of Women's Literature: Gynocriticism seeks to rediscover and reevaluate literature written by women, which is often overlooked or marginalised.

2. Female Literary Tradition: It aims to establish a distinct female literary tradition, recognising the unique themes, styles, and experiences of women writers.

3. Biological, Linguistic, Psychoanalytic, and Cultural Models: Gynocriticism analyses women's writing through various lenses to understand how gender influences literary production.

Important Figures

Elaine Showalter: A key figure in gynocriticism, Showalter's work "A Literature of Their Own" is foundational. It categorises women's literature into different historical phases.

Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar's collaborative work, "The Madwoman in the Attic," explores the complex relationship between female writers and the literary canon dominated by men.

Annis Pratt: Known for her work on women's literary traditions and psychological development in literature, Pratt's contributions are significant to gynocriticism.

Examples

Elaine Showalter's "A Literature of Their Own" traces the development of women's literature in England and highlights the unique contributions of women writers.

Gilbert and Gubar's "The Madwoman in the Attic" is an influential work that examines the portrayal of women in 19th-century literature, focusing on themes of madness and confinement.

6. Male Gaze

Male Gaze is a concept in feminist theory that describes the way visual arts and literature depict the world and women from a masculine, heterosexual perspective, objectifying women.

Key Concepts include:

1. Objectification of Women: The Male Gaze reduces women to objects of male pleasure and spectatorship.

2. Power Dynamics: It highlights the power imbalance in visual and narrative representations, where men are the active viewers and women are passive subjects.

3. Impact on Society: The concept explores how such representations influence societal attitudes towards women and perpetuate gender inequality.

Important Figures

Laura Mulvey: A British feminist film theorist, Mulvey's essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" is foundational, introducing the concept of the Male Gaze in film studies.

John Berger: Although not exclusively a feminist theorist, Berger's work "Ways of Seeing" discusses how traditional art objectifies women, contributing to understanding the Male Gaze.

Mary Ann Doane: A film theorist who explores the implications of the Male Gaze and how female spectatorship can subvert traditional viewing dynamics.

Examples

Laura Mulvey's "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema": This essay analyses how classical Hollywood cinema perpetuates the Male Gaze and objectifies female characters.

John Berger's "Ways of Seeing": Berger's analysis of how women are portrayed in European paintings reveals the pervasive nature of the Male Gaze in art history.

7. Phallocentrism

Phallocentrism refers to privileging the male perspective and experience in cultural, social, and linguistic structures. It is the idea that societal norms and values revolve around the male point of view, marginalising women and other genders.

Key Concepts include:

1. Centrality of the Male Experience: Phallocentrism posits that male experiences and perspectives are treated as the norm or universal standard.

2. Marginalization of Women: This concept highlights how women and their experiences are often considered secondary or peripheral in a phallocentric society.

3. Critique of Symbolism: Phallocentrism critiques the symbolic order that associates power and authority with masculinity.

Important Figures

Jacques Lacan: Although not a feminist theorist, Lacan's psychoanalytic theories, particularly the concept of the "phallus" as a symbol of power, are central to discussions of Phallocentrism.

Hélène Cixous: A key figure in feminist theory, Cixous critiques phallocentric structures in literature and advocates for Écriture Féminine.

Luce Irigaray: Her work challenges phallocentric language and logic, promoting a more inclusive and egalitarian approach to gender and discourse.

Examples

Freudian Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud's theories often centre on the male experience, with concepts like "penis envy" reflecting a phallocentric perspective.

Traditional Literature: Many classic literary works focus on male protagonists and perspectives, often marginalising or stereotyping female characters.

8. Phallogocentrism

Phallogocentrism is a term coined by Jacques Derrida, combining "Phallocentrism" (male-centeredness) and "logocentrism" (focus on logic and reason). It critiques how Western philosophy and culture prioritise male-dominated, logical, and linguistic structures.

Key Concepts include:

1. Combination of Phallocentrism and Logocentrism: Phallogocentrism addresses the intertwined nature of male dominance and the privileging of reason and language in Western thought.

2. Critique of Binary Oppositions: It challenges binary oppositions (male/female, reason/emotion) that reinforce hierarchical structures.

3. Deconstruction: Derrida's method of deconstruction reveals and critiques the underlying phallogocentric assumptions in texts and cultural practices.

Important Figures

Jacques Derrida: The founder of deconstruction, Derrida's work on Phallogocentrism explores how language and philosophy perpetuate male dominance.

Judith Butler: A gender theorist whose work on performativity critiques phallogocentric assumptions in constructing gender identities.

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: A postcolonial theorist who critiques phallogocentric and logocentric biases in Western literature and philosophy.

Examples

Western Philosophy: Philosophers like Plato and Descartes emphasise reason and logic, often side-lining other forms of knowledge and reinforcing male-centric viewpoints.

Linguistic Structures: Language often reflects and reinforces phallogocentric assumptions, such as the generic use of "he" to refer to people in general.

9. Elaine Showalter's "Towards a Feminist Poetics"

Elaine Showalter's essay "Towards a Feminist Poetics" is foundational in feminist literary criticism. It introduces key concepts and frameworks for analysing literature from a feminist perspective, mainly focusing on the development of a distinct female literary tradition.

"Towards a Feminist Poetics" outlines the need for a feminist approach to literary criticism that acknowledges and values women's experiences and contributions to literature. Showalter distinguishes between two modes of feminist critique: the feminist critique and gynocriticism.

Key Concepts include:

1. Feminist Critique: Analyzes literature written by men, examining how women are represented and critiquing patriarchal biases in texts.

2. Gynocriticism: This field focuses on literature written by women, exploring their experiences, themes, and literary traditions to develop a female-centered literary history.

3. Phases of Women's Writing: Showalter identifies three historical phases of women's writing: The Feminine phase, the Feminist phase, and the Female phase.

Important Figures

Elaine Showalter: A leading figure in feminist literary criticism, Showalter's work on gynocriticism and the phases of women's writing has significantly influenced the field.

Virginia Woolf: An influential modernist writer, Woolf's work on women's writing and the concept of the "androgynous mind" is discussed in Showalter's framework.

Simone de Beauvoir: Her seminal work, "The Second Sex", is pivotal in feminist theory and is referenced by Showalter in her analysis of women's roles and identities.

Examples

Phases of Women's Writing: Showalter categorises women's literature into three stages:

Feminine Phase (1840-1880): Women writers imitated dominant male traditions and internalised patriarchal values.

Feminist Phase (1880-1920): Women began to protest and advocate for their rights, producing literature that challenged patriarchal norms.

Female Phase (1920-present): Women writers seek to establish a female literary tradition, exploring their own experiences and identities independently of male influence.

Key Concepts include:

1. Feminist Critique

Analysing Male-Centric Literature: The feminist critique focuses on how men portray women in literature, uncovering biases and stereotypes.

2. Critiquing Patriarchal Structures: This mode of analysis examines how literary works reinforce or challenge patriarchal ideologies.

3. Representation of Women: This section examines the roles, characteristics, and narratives assigned to female characters, critiquing their often secondary or objectified status.

4. Recovery of Women's Literature: Gynocriticism aims to rediscover and re-evaluate the works of women writers that have been overlooked or marginalised in literary history.

5. Developing a Female Literary Tradition: It establishes a distinct tradition of women's writing, identifying common themes, styles, and experiences.

6. Biological, Linguistic, Psychoanalytic, and Cultural Models: Showalter suggests using various models to understand how women's literature is influenced by their biological experiences, linguistic practices, psychological development, and cultural contexts.

Phases of Women's Writing

Feminine Phase: Women writers during this period conformed to male literary standards, often writing under male pseudonyms or adopting male styles.

Feminist Phase: This phase is characterised by women's active struggle for equality and rights, reflected in their literature's themes and narratives.

Female Phase: Women writers explore their identities and experiences in the contemporary phase, creating a unique literary voice free from male influence.

Examples

Virginia Woolf's "A Room of One's Own" is a seminal work in feminist literary criticism. It advocates for women's space and autonomy in the literary world.

Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre": An example of the Feminine Phase, where Brontë's writing both conforms to and subtly critiques patriarchal norms.

Simone de Beauvoir's "The Second Sex": Although a philosophical text, it profoundly influences feminist literary theory by exploring the construction of women as "Other."