Introduction to Nationalism and Post Nationalism

Selected Luminaries in Nationalism and Post Nationalism

E.P. Thompson

E.P. Thompson, a British Marxist historian, is renowned for his groundbreaking work The Making of the English Working Class (1963). He argued that history should focus not only on economic conditions but also on the experiences and culture of ordinary people. Thompson’s work emphasizes the concept of "agency," highlighting how marginalized groups, like the working class, shape history through resistance and organization. His ideas have deeply influenced cultural studies, particularly in understanding the role of class and social movements in history. Thompson’s approach has parallels with subaltern studies, which similarly seek to recover the voices of those left out of elite historical narratives.

Susie Tharu

Susie Tharu is an Indian feminist, scholar, and literary critic, best known for her work on feminist theory and Dalit literature. She co-edited Women Writing in India: 600 B.C. to the Present, which brought forward women’s voices and stories marginalized by mainstream literary canons. Tharu’s critiques often challenge both colonial and nationalist perspectives, particularly when they ignore gender and caste dynamics. Her work intersects with subaltern and Dalit studies, calling attention to the socio-political marginalization of women and oppressed communities in India. Her contributions emphasize how gender and caste must be central to discussions of nationalism and post-nationalism.

Important Terminology

Nationalism

Nationalism refers to the political ideology that emphasizes the interests, culture, and identity of a specific nation or group of people. In Benedict Anderson's Imagined Communities, nationalism is seen as a socially constructed concept, where members of a nation imagine themselves as part of a broader community, even though they may never meet. Nationalism often emerges through shared language, history, or myths. For example, the Indian independence movement in the early 20th century used nationalist sentiments to unite diverse groups against British colonialism. However, Anderson also notes that nationalism can lead to exclusion and conflicts, as it often defines an "us" against "them."

Post-nationalism

Post-nationalism refers to a political and cultural condition where traditional notions of the nation-state are increasingly irrelevant. This may be due to globalization, transnational identities, or the rise of supranational organizations like the European Union. Post-nationalism questions the fixed borders and homogenous identity that nationalism tends to promote. For example, in the context of the European Union, member states have pooled sovereignty, blurring the strict boundaries of nationalism. Additionally, migration and global communication networks foster identities that are no longer tied to a single nation-state, signaling a shift towards a post-national world. However, post-nationalism can also lead to tensions, as seen in the backlash against globalization.

Patriotism

Patriotism is the love or devotion to one's country, often linked to national pride and loyalty. Unlike nationalism, which can involve exclusionary politics, patriotism focuses more on the emotional and moral attachment to one’s homeland. Patriotism can be a positive force, as seen during struggles for independence, where loyalty to the country is combined with a desire for freedom and justice, such as in Gandhi's movement for Indian independence. However, excessive patriotism can turn into jingoism, an aggressive form of nationalism. In literature, works like Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass celebrate the ideals of American patriotism, emphasizing unity and democracy.

Myths

Myths play a crucial role in constructing national identity, as they provide a narrative that unites people through shared history and values. In Anderson’s Imagined Communities, myths about a glorious past or common ancestry are often used to foster a sense of belonging. These myths can be both inclusive, as in the myth of the "melting pot" in the United States, and exclusive, as seen in Nazi Germany’s Aryan race myth. Myths help nations create a collective memory that reinforces a shared identity, but they can also distort history and contribute to the marginalization of minority groups by excluding them from the dominant narrative.

Common Cultural Past

The notion of a "common cultural past" is integral to nationalism, as it provides the foundation upon which national identity is built. This past is often constructed or romanticized to unify diverse groups within a nation. For example, in postcolonial India, leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru promoted the idea of a shared cultural heritage that transcended regional, linguistic, and religious differences. However, the idea of a common cultural past can also be exclusionary, as it often ignores or erases the histories of marginalized groups, such as Dalits, Indigenous peoples, or religious minorities, in favour of a more homogeneous national narrative.

Culture Concept

Culture refers to the set of shared practices, beliefs, values, and symbols that define a particular group. In the context of nationalism, culture plays a pivotal role in defining the nation. Benedict Anderson suggests that print culture, language, and education systems were essential in the spread of national consciousness. Culture also helps create what Gramsci calls "hegemony," where the dominant group’s worldview becomes accepted as common sense. However, culture is not static; it is constantly evolving and can be a site of resistance, as seen in the cultural movements of minority groups who challenge dominant national narratives.

Dalit Studies

Dalit Studies focuses on the historical and contemporary experiences of Dalits, who are at the bottom of India’s caste hierarchy. It seeks to highlight their struggles against caste oppression and to recover the voices that have been historically silenced. Dalit literature, such as the works of B.R. Ambedkar, has been central to challenging caste-based discrimination and exclusion from nationalist discourses that have historically ignored the plight of lower castes. Dalit studies also intersect with postcolonial theory, critiquing the nationalist project for perpetuating caste hierarchies even after independence. The focus on Dalits brings attention to the gaps in the "common cultural past" narratives of India.

Subaltern Studies

Subaltern Studies is an academic movement that seeks to give voice to the marginalized and oppressed, particularly in colonial and postcolonial contexts. Inspired by Antonio Gramsci’s concept of the "subaltern," these studies challenge the elitist bias of traditional historiography by focusing on the experiences of those outside the dominant power structures, such as peasants, workers, and women. In India, scholars like Ranajit Guha have examined how subaltern groups resisted colonial rule in ways that were often overlooked by nationalist leaders. Subaltern studies question the idea of a homogeneous nation and highlight the internal divisions within nationalist movements.

Minority Ethnic Community

Minority ethnic communities often face exclusion within the framework of nationalism, which typically centers on a dominant ethnic group. These communities may be marginalized because their cultural practices, languages, or histories differ from the national mainstream. For example, in Sri Lanka, the Tamil ethnic minority has faced significant oppression and violence from the Sinhalese-majority government. In many nations, the rights of minority communities become a contentious issue, leading to calls for autonomy, recognition, or even secession. Anderson’s Imagined Communities emphasizes that while nationalism seeks to unite, it also inherently creates boundaries, often leaving minority ethnic groups on the periphery.

Re-emergence of Extreme Communal Violence

The re-emergence of extreme communal violence refers to the escalation of violence between different religious or ethnic communities, often fueled by nationalist or sectarian ideologies. In South Asia, for instance, communal violence between Hindus and Muslims has resurfaced periodically, most notably during the partition of India in 1947 and in the Gujarat riots of 2002. Such violence often arises when political actors manipulate nationalist sentiments to marginalize certain groups, creating an "us versus them" mentality. The rise of right-wing nationalism in various parts of the world has contributed to the resurgence of such communal tensions and conflicts.

Gender Ethnography

Gender ethnography refers to the study of gender roles, relations, and identities in different cultures, particularly through fieldwork. It explores how gender is socially constructed and varies across cultures and time. In the context of nationalism, gender ethnography can reveal how nationalist movements often perpetuate traditional gender roles. For instance, women are frequently symbolized as the "motherland" or "bearers of the nation," while men are cast as its protectors. However, feminist scholars, such as Nira Yuval-Davis, argue that nationalist discourses often marginalize women’s actual political participation. Gender ethnography also explores the intersectionality of gender with other identities, like race and class, offering a nuanced view of how nationalism affects different groups.